Leo and the Chain of Being

As soon as we began discussing Leo today, I immediately thought of the Chain of Being. I recently went over this hierarchy in my Shakespeare class (you can't get much more western than Shakespeare), and I began to wonder about the big question - does Maalouf take an orientalist approach when he converted Hasan into a Catholic and took on the name of Leo. The whole premise of the Chain is the idea that everything on Earth and in heaven must be classified. The Heavens are classified with God at the top, followed by archangels, angels, etc. Earth is then classified into hierarchal steps beginning with a humans, then animals, plants, flames, and finally stones. Within each category there are further classification - for example within humans, kings would be higher than servants, and lions would be higher than dogs in animals. Lions, Leo, Animals? Is Leo's character linked to animals? He was clearly a respected man in the eyes of Leo X, but he was also his "present." I wonder if Maalouf gave him this name to represent the idea that, while Hasan was at the top of intellectual status within the Islamic community (a lion among the animals), but because of his race and culture, would never be "human" in the western world?

I've added a visual with the link below. If you scroll down to the fourth picture within the website, there is a sketch of the chain of being. Take notice of the lion laying on the ground below the king-like figure. Is this Hasan to Leo X - both strong, but with one always having the upper hand in the world?

http://geopolicraticus.wordpress.com/tag/great-chain-of-being/

Men of Learning

I'm glad i go to school. Even when it feels like an insurmountable mess of work and extraneous odds and ends, i can be comforted knowing that an educated person is always more valuable than a complete idiot (the likes of Justin Bieber notwithstanding). We're lucky to live in an age of near-universal knowledge. It's easier than it's ever been to acquire any information.
During the time of Leo Africanus, though, knowledge and education was not such a universal, expected thing. The value of an education was a lot greater back then, and in desperate cases could even save you life, as demonstrated through not only Leo Africanus, but Pamuk's The White Castle. In both works, the protagonists are saved from the horrors of imprisonment through what they knew and could teach. In both cases, the protagonists are saved through their relationships with deity who recognize their education's value."A man of art and learning is always welcome among Us, not as a servant but as a protege." (Pope Leo X, pg. 292)
At this i'm somewhat perplexed. Everything I've been led to believe about the church and science has led me to the conclusion that they're non-compatible. The pursuit of scientific knowledge, be it medicine or logical problem solving, suggests looking for answers beyond what faith tells. That said, faith and learning seem naturally opposed. Today's incarnation of the Church only reinforces that  idea, with their somewhat backwards ideas on the length of human history and what lies beyond.
And yet, i'm not the only one who sees this divide. In Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree, as the Christians bring the inquisition and begin to tear the Muslims out of Spain, Ximenes de Cisneros, instrument of the Church, demands a book burning of all Islamic literature.

Babel

On page 332, Maalouf describes a project that Hasan (under the Roman name Joseph Leo) is conscipted to work on: "an enormous lexicon in which each word should appear in a multitude of languages, including Latin, Arabic, Hebrew, Greek, Saxon, German, Italian, French, Castilian, Turkish and many others...[which the printer devising the plan] had given the name Anti-Babel".  Babel references a story from the Old Testament, set sometime after the Great Flood and in a world in which everyone spoke the same language and were all one people. God decided to confuse the languages of man and scatter them throughout the earth.  Interestingly, I could not find a matching story in the Quran.  There is mention of a Pharaoh who decrees that a tower should be built, so that he could survey the God of Moses and call him a liar. The Quran says that this scheme ends in ruin, but says nothing of languages or people being separated. After some research, I have found many different explanations for this. The one I found most interesting was a quote from the Quran, saying "Among His proofs are the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the variations in your languages and your colors. In these, there are signs for the knowledgeable. (30:22)" This suggests two opposing viewpoints: one in which man's diversity is a source of conflict, and one in which it is a source of strength. Hasan, as someone who is by the end of the book neither entirely Muslim nor entirely Christian, represents events that support both views.  
Hasan lives through many wars and conquests: first of the Catholic Conquistadors against Granada, of the Ottomans and the Mamelukes in Egypt, and finally of the Lutherans and the Catholics in Rome.  These wars often see religion against religion, and language against language.  But, as represented by Hasan, his diverse family, and the similar experiences he sees around the world, these people are more alike than they are different.  The religious undertones are supported by frequent references to the "people of the book": the treatment of Muslims, of Christians, and of Jews.  Hasan himself has been a Moor in Spain, a Muslim in Egypt, and a Medici in Rome.  He has loves or marries first an African slave girl, his Mulsim cousin, then a Circassian princess, and finally a Jewish conversa.

From a feminist viewpoint, I feel obligated to point out that the female characters serve only as plot devices to move or keep Hasan in one place or another, and to involve him in various intrigues or conflicts.  The women are often and easily replaced, despite promises to "love [each one] forever", and the only memories lasting of each one is her physical beauty and memories of lustful nights.  Nur is the only one to challenge Hasad's absolute authority over his wives, and to hold ambitions of her own, yet even she leaves something to be desired as a feminist example.  Nur's ambitions are not strictly for herself but for her son.  Finally even these great schemes (the future of Egypt's rule) are quietly dismissed and pushed aside in the story.  Nur's political schemes are explained for the last time on page 318 in a total of 8 lines; her sex scene with Hasan takes up nearly the entire page of 242.

Leo Africanus

Greg Stewart

So I just finished reading the first half of Leo Africanus by Amin Maalouf and I found it to be slow to start but once it gets into the protagonists adolescence it really picks up.  I really enjoyed the background in the first few chapters but I found it a bit dry and tough to read at certain points.  I find the plot to be very interesting though.  Maalouf brings in ideas revolving around the culture of the Andalusians that Tariq Ali did not touch upon in The Shadows of The Pomegranate Tree.  This novel contrasts to the stay and fight approach that Banu Hudayl took because Muhammad and his family flee from Grenada in order to preserve their faith.  The novels were similar in their treatment of the interpersonal relationships between the families.  There is a lot of drama between the characters because of the polygamist tendencies of the Muslim people in the novel.  I like that a large part of the text focuses on how all of the relationships play out, that is what kept me hooked.  I think that my favorite character would have to be Harun because he shows the curious yet mischievous side of the youth in Fez.  I like how him and Hasan are very contrasted; I think that it shows how diverse Northern Africa was in their time, even between people of very similar cultures.  I really enjoyed the connection between Hasan and Muhammad, I think Hasan's realization that he is going through the same predicament as his father did for the majority of Hasan's life.  It has a certain sense of connection between the two of them when it is clear that they have a tumultuous relationship.

Kama Takunu Yuwalla Alaikum

"You will have the rulers you deserve"

My grandmother said almost the exact same thing to me a couple months ago when i said i was unsure if i would vote in the presidential election. Back then, i said what i did because i didn't have a lot of confidence in my politics. I still don't. I've never felt qualified to have a political opinion or stance because all it ever seems to be is at least two people trying to get me to follow them blindly, and i don't want to take responsibility for that (yet).

Anyways, the quote made me think about a couple different things. In Leo Africanus, Khali says this to his sister Salma after recalling the decline of Granada into civil war, a problem brought on by the incompetence of the last sultan. Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali, the sultan who demanded non-stop parades and festivities to celebrate his reign, more or less summoned the wrath of god (if you believe in such things), then drowned himself in luxury, and then started a fight with the Christians that he and his people could not finish. Then civil war ensued. Khali and Salma say this to each other and i wonder what its supposed to mean for a civilization ruled by a monarch. My grandmother meant that in a democracy, any fool who doesn't voice their opinion, who doesn't cast their vote, doesn't get to bitch and moan when the decision is made without them. She was right, and i voted because if nothing else i believed in that idea.

I thought about Hugo Chavez, the late president of Venezuela who reigned for 14 years, won four elections and survived a coup. He was adored by his people, despite some questionable politics (which i will not get into, due to my aforementioned lack of political savvy) and accusations of antisemitism. Did Venezuela have the ruler they deserved? They did elect him four times after all.

I also thought about the Arab Spring, a political movement in the middle east where, to date, governments have been overthrown in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and Yemen, civil war has broken out in Syria and major protests have taken place in several surrounding countries. Over there, the people are demonstrating that they will have the rulers they deserve or die fighting for it.

And, i thought about our own country. As champions of democracy, we are still a nation marked by our polar politics. Every election, people go to the poles and vote for a person who represents the political party they associate with. Most often, it is the Democrats and the Republicans who fight over the majority of votes. Sure, there are plenty of people who vote based on a more personalized set of values, or who support smaller third parties, but one of the two parties always wins, and is subsequently checked in the senate or house of representatives. Currently in our country, people gripe about our government's inability to get things done. I believe (and i know i'm not the first person to say this) this is largely do to the strong resent between parties, and their inability to work together. It seems like what they're really trying to do is dominate one another. Are we getting the government we deserve? we're force-fed the notion that democracy is the highest, most enlightened type of government, and that it is our sacred duty to spread it far and wide. Sure, i'd rather live here than in a country that is experiencing famine or violence. But, it seems to me that by continuing to support our two-party democracy, we're asking for our government to continue to stunt itself.

I don't know the answer, but i think the question is important by itself: What does it mean to have the rulers you deserve? Do we? Does anyone?

Leo's Contribution to how the West Perceives the East

Zakiyyah Abdus-Salaam

          Leo was born in Granada during the transition of Granada from a Muslim ruled Spain, to a new Christian kingdom. Leo and many others were considered Andulusians, Muslims born in Spain. Many groups of Andalusian immigrants migrated to Morocco, where they had formed their own communities and bonds, introducing their own culture and customs to the new area. Leo and his family were able to bring majority of their belongings with them and maintain a high lifestyle in Fes, Morocco, kick starting Leo’s success. Leo began his life-long educational journey in one of the Fes’s Mederas. As a student Leo studied religion and theology as well as some science and mathematics. Along with schooling, Leo Africanus had the opportunity to travel worldwide and learn through personal experience and involvement with diverse groups of people with different customs. Leo’s excursions consisted of commercial and diplomatic missions through North Africa and parts of Europe. His first diplomatic operation took place with his uncle to the Maghreb, reaching as far as the city of Timbuktu; being sent as an ambassador for Fes to the Sudan at age 16 exemplifies his life long attachment to the city of Fes’s education and government facilities. On Leo’s voyages, he aimed to record only neutral and unbiased history so the audience of his works would know the valid facts. The types of facts he records for each location greatly depends on the purpose of his travels: when he visited foreign lands for the geographic demographics, he would leave out characteristics of the people of the land. Unfortunately, Leo documentation of his travels comes from his memory, leaving some room for inaccuracy; much speculation can be attributed to Leo’s portrayal of Morocco and the Muslims that inhabit Morocco because he in not Moroccan nor does he remain a Muslim. Leo was keen enough to realize that this could be a potential problem and responds with: "I realize that it is questionable of him to reveal the negative qualities of Africans. Africa was my wet nurse, I grew up there and spent the longest and most beautiful part of my life. But I must be a historian, and am thus obligated to speak the truth with no reserve." (65) The well-rounded education and traveling experiences that Leo had the opportunity to learn and grow interested the Europeans. Europe saw Leo as an excellent source of information on Islam and Middle Eastern Culture and learned from him. If the Far West would have had information as accurate as Leo’s, orientalism might not be as big of a problem today.

Leo Africanus: Blurring the Line Between Family and the Other

            Amin Maalouf’s Leo Africanus continually stresses the concept of common humanity underlying all cultures and social classes, and the absurdity of violating this humanity on the basis of conflicting identities.  For example, the narrator’s mother Salma is the free Muslim wife of Muhammad.  Originally, she is extremely resentful towards Muhammad’s mistress Warda, a Christian slave.  When both women become pregnant at the same time, a silent competition begins over who will bare Muhammad his first son.  One day after Muhammad parades them both through the streets, the women both collapse on the same bed and broke into laughter.  After this incident, “a certain bond developed which softened the rivalry between them” (Maalouf 8).  It is in subtle ways such as this that Maalouf seems to be suggesting that common human experiences, such as pregnancy, can bring us together despite differences in class or religion. 

            This message is also conveyed by the way the novel conveys the seeming pointlessness of fighting those with whom one shares a partial identity.  For example, under sultan Abu’l-Hasan people “were arrested because they had been denounced by some rival or even a jealous neighbor” (17).  The fact that neighbors, who share a common location at the least, would have each other arrested reveals the danger of living in any sort of fear culture.  When civil war breaks out over allegiance to the sultan, “sons killed fathers and brothers strangled brothers…neighbors suspected and betrayed each other” (19).  By including both external and civil war and tension between cultures and tension between family members, Maalouf causes us to question where we draw the line between the “other” and our own kin.  We are appalled by the thought of brothers betraying brothers, but at what point do we determine that someone is too “other” to deserve our loyalty and respect?  

The Status of Women in Leo Africanus

            When reading Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree by Tariq Ali, I was surprised to see the ways in which Muslim women were empowered during the medieval time period in which it was set. When envisioning the East through a Western lens, Islamic society is often viewed as oppressive and cruel towards their female population. Today through the media and other resources, the West is guilty of being more familiar with the Islamic fundamentalist presence in the Middle East rather than the modern and bustling society that also exists therein. However, Islamic fundamentalism was not thoroughly mentioned in Ali’s novel, where is becomes a major topic of discussion in Leo Africanus by Amin Maalouf, especially as it is voiced by the character Shaikh Astaghfirullah. Throughout the first book of the novel, there is continuous mention of the status of women in Granada, where many are viewed as heretics in their superstitions, and temptations in their beauty. It seems that what Ali failed to mention in his novel was how the Inquisition’s threat to destroy Islamic society and the city of Granada was also coupled with an Islamic extremist movement that affected the status of women.

            We first learn the concept of ‘free’ versus ‘enslaved’ women when Hasan’s mother describes the early stages of her marriage. As a married woman she was considered free, yet her husband becomes seduced by their servant Warda who was considered a slave. Her servant had “all the wiles of seduction at her disposal” (6), while Salma was unable to abandon her conservative demeanor.  Warda could, “go out unveiled, sing, dance, pour wine, wink her eyes, and take off her clothes”, which led Salma to feel as though freedom were “a deceitful form of bondage, and slavery a subtle form of freedom” (6).

            The superstitions that women commonly held during this time period were also viewed as a kind of herecy. In explaining her prediction for bearing a son to her husband Muhammad, Salma was immediately accused of being a “witch” and a “she-devil” and ran the risk of being beaten (8). Later the reader learns that the manufacture of amulets and charms made by mothers to protect their children was also a practice that defied religion, and women were seen as irrational and inferior by ascribing to these superstitions.

            When Shaikh Astaghfirullah gives his sermon, he comments on his extremist view of women in Islamic society. He remarks on how women are often seen “unveiled” on the streets, “offering their faces and their hair to the lustful gaze of hundreds of men” (33), a view that closely corresponds with the Western view of Islamic fundamentalism or in some cases even Middle Eastern society as a whole. Shaikh sees a religious defiance in how “men cannot be distinguished from women, neither in their dress nor in their gait” (34) within Islamic society.

            This novel, written similarly to Shades of the Pomegranate Tree allows the reader more insight into medieval Islam in Granada before the fall of the city. I am interested to see how the status of women changes in Hasan’s future travels.

Parallels between Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree and Leo Africanus

Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree and Leo Africanus share a setting, Moorish Spain, and romanticized view of Grenada during the Islamic rule of Spain. Similarly, both stories also have an inkling of hope for cultural unity or bias towards living in harmony with other cultures instead of a purist, monocultural land. Also, both stories give off the impression of a hyperfictionalized account regardless of differences in writing style between Maalouf and Ali. Most notable is the use of extravagant, bourgeois culture in both novels to highlight a time of corruption or false security. In Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree, the long passages of food and events that related to the culture of the Moors in Spain prefaced the imminent doom that befell Al-Hudayl. Similarly, the ceremonies and extravagance of Grenada and the corruption of the sultans led to the great flood and the unsuccessful and dangerous military exploits led by Boabdil. There are similar characters between the novels too. Shaikh Astagfirullah was born Christian and converted to Islam, which is the reverse of Miguel in Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree who was born Muslim and converted to Christianity. Archetypes and mindsets seem to litter both novels and bring up similar if not the same issues which reflect the cultures in which they are written that raise popular questions the cultures have about globalization and citizenship.

Freedom as Bondage

            I was very interested in the contrast between Salma, Muhammad’s cousin and first wife, and Warda, Muhammad’s slave girl and mistress.  Salma, the eventual mother of Hasan, was Arabic and Muslim and a free woman, whereas Warda was Christian and bought for the family.  One would assume that as a free woman, Salma would have the better life, both in the household and in Granada in general.  However, as Sarah says, “freedom is a deceitful state of bondage, and slavery a subtle form of freedom.” (6)  Salma, as a Muslim, is forced to cover herself with a veil when she goes outside; Warda can walk free.  When Salma has to hold herself to a certain standard while in public, always being scrutinized, Warda can be flirtatious, sing, even drink wine.  It was an odd relationship; the free women were protected and restricted while the slaves could do as they pleased. 

It might be worth it for Salma if Warda would always be the slave, or if the fact that Salma had given birth to the first son had meant a little more.  However, the law of the times stated that once Warda gave birth, she would become free as well, and she would still get to live her life with the same whimsy as she had always been allowed.  It almost seems that, given the choice, Salma would rather be the Christian mistress.  Also, the reader is given the impression that Muhammad never really viewed Salma in a romantic light.  They clearly were physical, as Salma became pregnant.  At the same time, though, he referred to her as “cousin” or “Arab,” which really are not all that romantic.  It seems that although Salma does her best to please Muhammad, there is something exotic about Warda that he cannot stay away from.